Pre-U Psychology CAIE

This subject is broken down into 40 topics in 7 modules:

  1. Foundations of Psychology 4 topics
  2. Key Topics in Psychology 5 topics
  3. Psychological Applications 6 topics
  4. Issues and Debates in Psychology 7 topics
  5. Counselling Psychology 6 topics
  6. Educational Psychology 6 topics
  7. Organizational Psychology 6 topics
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  • 40
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  • 14,439
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This page was last modified on 28 September 2024.

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Psychology

Foundations of Psychology

Research methods

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Research methods

Overview of Research Methods

  • Research methods in psychology are various strategies, techniques, or procedures used to gather and interpret data.
  • They aid in the understanding of human behaviour and cognitive processes.
  • A diversity of methods are used including quantitative, qualitative, descriptive, correlational, experimental, among others.

Quantitative Methods

  • Quantitative research involves the collection of numerical data and the use of statistical analysis.
  • It measures the incidence, distribution, and relationships among variables.
  • It is objective and focuses on hypothesis testing.
  • Experiments and surveys are classic examples of quantitative research methods.
  • In experimental research, variables are manipulated and effects measured.
  • Surveys, on the other hand, are tools used to collect information about individual's thoughts, feelings, or behaviours in a structured way.

Qualitative Methods

  • Qualitative research is used to gain an in-depth understanding of human behaviour, experience, attitudes, intentions, and motivations.
  • Data collection methods include interviews, focus groups, and observations.
  • The interpretation of stories, behaviour, and articles or media is called content analysis.
  • Its strength lies in the richness of the data collected, often leading to more realistic conclusions.

Correlational Studies

  • Correlational research measures the relationship between two variables.
  • It can help predict behaviour but cannot determine cause and effect.
  • Positive correlation exists when an increase in one variable results in an increase in another and vice versa.
  • Negative correlation exists when an increase in one variable results in a decrease in another.

Experimental Methods

  • Experimental methods involve the manipulation of an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable.
  • Controlled conditions mean that other contributing factors are kept constant, reducing the likelihood of error.
  • Experiments can be conducted in both laboratory settings and real-life environments.
  • These methods are very good for determining cause and effect relationships.

Ethical Considerations in Research

  • Ethical considerations are crucial in all aspects of research, ensuring that the research process is respectful and fair.
  • Informed consent, confidentiality, anonymity, and protection from harm are key ethical principles.
  • Researchers should at all times avoid deceiving participants and should debrief participants after research.
  • Any potential harm or discomfort for participants must be considered and avoided.

This summarises the foundational aspects of research methods in psychology. It's vital to understand these to fully grasp the principles of psychological research and to be able to critically evaluate psychological studies.

Course material for Psychology, module Foundations of Psychology, topic Research methods

Psychology

Issues and Debates in Psychology

Psychology and gender

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Psychology and gender

Psychology and Gender

  • Gender is a central concept in psychology that involves the roles, behaviours, activities, and expectations that a society considers appropriate for males and females.
  • It's important to distinguish between sex and gender. Sex refers to the biological and physiological differences between males and females, including genitalia and genetic differences. On the other hand, gender relates to societal constructs surrounding what it means to be male or female.

Biological Theories of Gender Development

  • Biological theories suggest that gender is primarily determined by biological factors, such as hormonal and genetic differences.
  • The role of hormones, like testosterone and estrogen, are significant here. Hormones are thought to influence the development of male or female characteristics, both physically and behaviourally, from the prenatal stage onward.
  • A key study in this area is John Money's research on David Reimer, which provided insights into the significance of biological sex in gender development, and the difficulty of overriding this with postnatal social and environmental factors.

Social and Cultural Theories of Gender Development

  • Social and cultural theories emphasise the role of nurture and environmental influences in shaping our gender identity.
  • According to social learning theory, children learn gender-based behaviour and expectations through observation, imitation, and reinforcement. They copy the behaviour of same-sex role models and are rewarded for gender-appropriate behaviour.
  • Gender schema theory suggests children develop a mental framework of what is considered appropriate behaviour for their gender. They then use this schema to understand and organise new information and experiences.

Evidence from Cross-Cultural Studies

  • Cross-cultural studies provide evidence that gender roles and behaviours vary significantly across different cultures, challenging the idea that gender is purely biologically determined.
  • This research supports the idea that gender is, at least in part, a social construct shaped by cultural norms and expectations.

Androgyny and the Bem Sex Role Inventory

  • Androgyny refers to the blending of masculine and feminine characteristics in the same individual. It challenges the traditional binary view of gender.
  • Sandra Bem developed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), a measure of androgyny and gender roles.
  • According to Bem, androgynous individuals, who score high on both masculine and feminine traits, might be more psychologically well-adjusted as they can adapt their behaviour to a variety of situations.

Conclusion

  • The issue of psychology and gender is highly complex, intertwining biological and socio-cultural factors.
  • While it's clear biology plays a role in gender roles and identity, it's equally evident that societal values, expectations, and conditioning significantly shape our understanding and experience of gender.

Course material for Psychology, module Issues and Debates in Psychology, topic Psychology and gender

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