Emergence of Islamic Theology (Kalam)

• Kalam, meaning 'speech' or 'discussion' in Arabic, arose as a discipline of Islamic theology amidst theological debates and political instability in the 8th to 10th centuries CE.
• It was a response to ideological challenges against Islamic beliefs, such as from Greek philosophy, other religions, and dissension within Islam itself.
• Kalam sought to reconcile faith and reason; it utilised rational arguments to defend and explain Islamic doctrines.
• The rise of the Mutazilites, considered the first theological school of thought in Islam, marked a crucial point in the birth of Kalam. They called for a rational approach to understanding the Quran and Hadith.

Key Schools of Theology in Kalam

Mutazilites

• They had a strong emphasis on the oneness of God (tawhid) and the idea of divine justice.
• They rejected any anthropomorphic attributes to God, and believed in free will, arguing that humans bear full responsibility for their actions.

Asharites

• Founded by al-Ashari, a former Mutazilite, to counter Mutazilism and help realign the faith with orthodox beliefs.
• Asharism affirmed the unity of God and divine justice, but also asserted that any spoken word of God is uncreated and eternal.
• It introduced the concept of "acquired or delegated creation" (kasb), suggesting a middle ground between predestination and free will.

Maturidites

• Originated in Central Asia, Maturidism incorporated local Islamic traditions; it is seen as blending the rationalist focus of the Mutazilites and the more traditionalist tendencies of the Asharites.
• They believed that humans have a form of free will that is limited by God's foreknowledge and omnipotence.

Expansion and Influence of Kalam

• By the 12th century, Kalam spread from its initial centres (Irak and Iran) to Africa, Spain, Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.
• It shaped Islamic philosophy, jurisprudence and Sufism, while also influencing institutions, including the educational and legal systems.
• The need to defend Islam against foreign influences, particularly during the Crusades, bolstered the growth and prestige of Kalam.
• The Golden Age of Kalam (10th – 12th centuries CE) saw extensive debates, cross-cultural interchanges and invaluable treatises being written, including works by eminent scholars like Al-Ghazali.
• Kalam persisted despite some objections from conservative scholars who viewed its philosophical tendencies with suspicion.

Decline and Revival of Kalam

• Following the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, Kalam lost its centrality, largely due to the rise of other disciplines and the decline of rationalism.
• However, Kalam saw a revival in the modern era, paralleling the resurgence of interest in Islamic mysticism (Sufism) and a quest for an authentic Islamic identity. It continues to be referenced in various contexts, from education to dialogues about modern Muslim identity.

Revising these points on the emergence and development of Islamic theology (Kalam), its key schools, its expansion, impact, decline and revival will provide a comprehensive overview of this essential part of Islamic history.